Serious Games and Learning Theories: An Analysis of Connectivisim and Design-based Research

Video games have great potential in helping teachers and students achieve better educational outcomes. Recent decades have witnessed an increase in game-based learning by both teachers and students (Verenikina & Herrington 2009). Educational policymakers struggle with how to keep learners interested and engaged in schools, and how to reduce the dropout rates (Charles, Bustard, & Black, 2009) Students spend significant time and money on surfing social media and playing video games; video games can be explored and exploited to solve some problems that students and educators face (Gee, 2007).

Serious games and learning theories

Serious gaming is defined as “a mental contest, played with a computer in accordance with specific rules, that uses entertainment to further government, corporate, education, health, public policy or strategic communications training” (Zyda, 2005, p. 26). A well-produced serious game with well-designed graphics, good storyline, and with a sound pedagogical basis is of utmost importance. For example, Wu, Hsiao, Wu, Lin, and Huang, (2012) studied 658 educational games and found that 567 studies failed to reference any use of learning-theory as a basis for their foundations and only 91 studies were explicitly founded on a learning theory.

In this paper, I will briefly review the literature and discuss examples of serious games rooted in different learning theories. To conclude, I will suggest connectivism as the learning theory to be used in designing a serious game for sex education.

Examples of learning theories used in serious games

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a learning theory that states behaviors are acquired through conditioning (Skinner, 1938). The main ingredients are the stimulus, response, and association between the stimulus and response; conditioning is the main tool between a particular behaviour and consequence (Skinner, 1938). According to Skinner, studying observable behavior is more productive than focusing instruction on internal mental events that cannot be objectively measured or evaluated. What is of utmost importance is how the stimulus and response are associated, strengthened, and maintained (Ertmer & Newby 2013). According to behaviorist pedagogy, the learners should be presented with information, provided with the context for practice, and then given positive or negative feedback while playing the game (Wu et al., 2012).

SimSchool. SimSchool is a game drawn upon behaviourism. SimSchool was designed to provide preservice teachers with a safe environment for experimenting and practicing techniques, including methods to address different learning styles, and variations in students’ academic and behavioral performance. Learning styles and preferences have become very popular, particularly in technology; however, Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer and Bjork (2009) discovered that it is true that adults and children have preferences in learning but what they prefer is not necessarily what helps them to learn best. In SimSchool, there is a simulated classroom with students who have different physical and mental features and personalities (Figure 1). Based on their teaching aims, teachers try the tasks provided within the gameplay, and they can see the results of their decisions in their virtual students’ progress in the class (Figure 2). The feedback works as negative or positive reinforcement of the decisions the teacher has made and from this feedback they learn how to modify their decisions to help the students to progress in the game. The teacher continually analyses students’ needs, makes instructional decisions and evaluates the impact of his/her actions on students’ learning (Tyler-Wood, Estes, Christensen, Knezek, & Gibson, 2015); they are not expected to deeply analyse their decisions and reflect on them. This game attempts to help teachers understand different learning styles, however the notion of learning styles is limited in scope and depth of understanding (Pashler et al., 2009). Learning how to choose an appropriate task and managing a class involves deeper mental processes that are divergent and collaborative in nature, and cannot be simplified to similar responses on a single task (Funke, 2014).

Figure 1. SimSchool, screenshot of the game. Figure 2. SimSchool, screenshot of the game.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) states that observation of a model of behaviour and its consequences can lead to future utilization of that performance as a guide for similar behaviors (Bandura, 1986). People not only learn by trial and error (behaviourism), but also by observing and replicating what others have done, and the rewards and punishments they have received. Bandura (2001) explains that SCT can be used in media to influence behavioral changes. He states that learning mainly occurs either by intentional or unintentional observation of behaviours of others and their consequences and “a great deal of information about human values, styles of thinking, behavior patterns, etc. is gained from modeled styles of behavior portrayed symbolically through the electronic mass media” (p. 25). “Squire’s Quest!” is a good example of a serious game with SCT’s theoretical foundation. It is an intervention program to increase elementary school students’ fruit and vegetables consumptions.

Squire’s Quest. Baranowski et al., (2003) designed a game to persuade children to consume more fruit, fruit juice and vegetables. Bandura (1977) states that “ acquisition of response information is a major aspect of learning, and human behaviour is developed through modeling … The initial approximations of response patterns learned observationally are further refined through self-corrective adjustments based on informative feedback from performance” (p. 192). In line with elements of SCT, in Squire’s Quest, the players need to decide between their favorite fruit, juice, vegetable or a common snack (Baranowski et al., 2003). They observe different effects of their decisions through informative feedback from the game and gradually make corrective adjustments to the composition of their meals. Results and consequences of actions work as an implicit way of informing players about right actions to receive beneficial outcomes and to avoid punishment (Bandura, 1977). From the cognitive framework, learning from different outcomes is a specific form of “observational learning” (Bandura, 1977, p. 192).

There are some limitations to the learning theory of this game. There are other elements that are vital in choosing a meal, like hormones, genetics, biological differences, peers' eating habits, and direct experiences (Hayden, 2009). Nabi and Clark (2008) found that the portrayals of sexual behavior were likely to affect only those without direct experience with the target behavior portrayal outcomes and will most likely not affect attitudes or intentions regarding that behaviour. It could also be argued that behaviours are the result of a variety of factors and mere observation alone cannot be an effective tool. Therefore, observing differential effects of a decision in the game may not necessarily lead to a behaviour change. This game does not consider the previous direct experience of the players with snacks and vegetables, and changing behaviour mainly based on observing the outcomes in the game may not be an effective consistent behavioural change mechanism.

Exploratory Learning

The ‘exploratory learning model’ (ELM) extends from the Kolb (1984) model of experiential learning which states learning is constructed and contextual. According to Kolb (1984) “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (p. 26). Engagement with social interactions and real-world experience are important features of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984).

De Freitas and Neumann (2009) believe that this model needs to include virtual learning (De Freitas & Neumann, 2009) and argues ‘experience’ in Kolb’s experiential model is limited to lived experiences, but today the meaning of experience can be extended to virtual experiences. De Freitas and Neumann (2009) ELM stated that “building upon the use of more immersive learning opportunities and increased learner control over content development tools, the ELM aims to support deeper reflection upon the practices of learning and teaching (p. 346). In video games players have more control over content compared to other forms of media and if played with support from an educator, they can be developed to further discussions and reflections.

PR:EPARe. PR:EPARe (Positive Relationships: Eliminating Coercion and Pressure in Adolescent Relationships) is a serious game designed to equip adolescents with the necessary skills to handle coercion and pressure from peers (Clarke, Arnab, Dunwell, & Brown, 2012). Explicit content and scenarios are integrated into the structure of the game and the game is facilitated by a teacher within a classroom setting. The consequential exploratory learning activities in gameplay support learning through communal discourse and debriefing. PR:EPARe is designed for teachers to role-play, discuss and debrief topics of positive relationships and become better informed of students’ coercive acts and pressures.

Although this game is based on the experiential learning model, the experiences that the students have are in a controlled environment, which differs from real life experiences. Furthermore, for this game to achieve the intended results, a trained teacher needs to facilitate and guide the discussions in class. Also, being in the classroom, many of the students may shy away from discussing their own experiences and from asking personal questions. This factor can negatively affect the quality of further discussions.

Connectivism as a new learning theory

Searching databases like ScienceDirect, Elsevier, Search+ (the aggregate of online databases at the University of Ottawa's library), and Google Scholar with keywords related to educational video games combined with "connectivism" using the Boolean logic term ‘‘AND’’ informs us that there does not appear to be games designed specifically based on connectivism. I will briefly review the general principles of connectivism.

Siemens (2004) believes that behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism are learning theories that are used for instructional learning contexts and argues these theories do not address learning that occurs outside people, within the organisations and learning processed and stored by technology. Downes (2012) posits that knowledge is a set of connections between people in a society, bits in a computer and neurons in the brain. And it is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. It is spread among people of an organization or society or a database. In connectivism, the learner’s role is not to memorize everything, but to have the capacity to find, filter, create and apply knowledge when and where it is needed (Anderson & Dron, 2012). Matter (2018) says that connectivism reformats Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978). In connectivism, ZPD is a flexible zone, which includes shared cognition and learning among people, artifacts and devices. Knowledge gets lost and retrieved several times. In this sense, initially a learner cannot do a task without help and then finds how to do that online. After accomplishing the task with the help of technology, he/she forgets that knowledge because they do not need that specific piece of information anymore and get back to the position of not knowing it (Matter, 2018). Furthermore, it gives the learners the freedom to stretch their ZPD as much as they need and are interested.

Two main features can define connectivist pedagogies. “The first is using personal learning networks that provide ubiquitous and on demand access to resources, individuals and groups of potential information and knowledge servers” (Anderson & Dron, 2012, p. 8). In a connectivist serious game, the players can have access to experts, teachers, parents, and peers to use their personal learning networks. Moreover, they are online and have access to other sources of information, which could be shared. Smylie, Maticka‐Tyndale and Boyd (2008) found the positive effects of the use of representatives of community organisations to teach some parts of the sexual health curriculum in secondary schools. Connectivism allows the participation of sexual health related experts in the game as sources of knowledge.

The second is the focus on creation, as opposed to consumption, of information and knowledge resources (Anderson & Dron, 2012). When building a city, troops, weapons, and any in-game items is only possible through effectively find, sort, evaluate, filter, reformat and publish content, then we have a game based on creation of information and knowledge resource. Kop (2011) stated that semiotic features like multimedia could motivate the learners to take on a learning project. Blending knowledge with semiotic features can make learners more motivated and engaged in learning sexual health related topics (Smylie, et al., 2008).

Learning in connectivism is not merely to possess a simple set of facts but to emulate an entire discipline (Downes, 2012), and that happens by exposing the students to authentic environments and experiences. Online games could form real life contexts of communities of practice and can be properly used to create a community of experts and learners building networks for different purposes. Knowledge is distributed across a network of connections which are built through different kinds of input provided by diverse members with varying cognitive strength and problem-solving skills. Learners create their own understandings rather than being given representations in a linear approach of providing materials. A serious video game can create a community of members who have a similar goal and simulates as many senses as possible to help the new knowledge emerge in their brains until they become a new member with new sets of connections. “ Mastery, is both an individual, group and community-level achievement. Individual mastery leads to greater play/work group mastery, which in turn leads to greater organisational or community mastery” (Galarneau, 2005, p. 4). Emergence as another feature of connectivism can be seen in a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG). The players think, act and play locally but their collective actions form a global understanding ( Galarneau, 2005). Groups of players emerge in an entirely decentralised and self-organised way, engaging in group pursuits and assisting each other to learn how the game world functions ( Galarneau, 2005). Downes (2012) states that knowledge is not contained by one individual but emerges from the interactions among people. In the game Sims Build It (Figures 3 and 4) the players have to build their own cities and for that they have to communicate, share and exchange goods. This imbeds diversity, as another feature of connectivism. For a community to work efficiently, different members with different perspectives are needed to form knowledge. Players of MMORPGs gather in clubs (Figure 3) of 10 up to hundreds of diverse members to discuss and exchange what they need.

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Figure 4. Sims Build it, screenshot of the game.

Table 1. A meta-analysis of three serious games

These sources in games are usually limited to gold, tools, gems, etc. but if we change the units of exchange to ‘knowledge or information’, such as sexual health knowledge, it’s not limited. It can be developed to a more open environment in which the source can be anything related to the members’ needs. The community can have one specific goal of defeating another community in a war or a competition but each of them can have their own sense of values, which is in line with self-directedness feature of connectivism. Table 1 summarizes the three serious games and their learning theories based on five factors of presentation, interaction, feedback, learning outcome and assessment.

Challenges to Connectivism

Contrary to traditional learning environments, a connectivist learner is responsible for his/her learning and should be independently able to aggregate, relate, create and share information (Kop, 2011). Taking up a connectivist learning course needs a high level of motivation, confidence, digital literacy and critical analysis skills since the learners should manage their time, set their own learning goals, find and create resources and share them (Kop, 2011).

Teacher presence (Garrison, Anderson, and Archer, 1999) as the establisher of a critical community of inquiry seems to be the most challenging factor in a connectivist course. Hiltz and Turoff (1993) found that absence of responsible teaching is usually the reason for failure in online education. This can also explain why not all students in a connectivist Massive Open Online Course or MOOC (PLENK2010) were able to independently organise their own learning in a complex environment (Kop, 2011). Connectivists argue that knowledgeable others on the web could replace teachers but again that is the learners’ skills to find the reliable sources and evaluate them. Teachers’ role in a connectivist course is essentially devoted to ensuring that students have connections, as much as possible, with other actors or other digital resources (Duplàa, & Talaat, 2011).

Having no educator present to create content for learners can make connectivism a challenging theory (Kop, 2011). Particularly when the program is for young learners without any digital literacy skills and in sensitive topics like sex and relationships. Table 2 compares the four learning theories features and how connectivism can be a more efficient theory for a technology and internet-based intervention.

Research Designs Analysis

In this paper, I looked at three serious games, their pedagogical basis and research design. Regarding their research design, all of them used a quantitative, traditional, predictive approach. In the SimSchool game, McPherson et al., (2011) used a non-equivalent comparison group, quasi-experimental design to test teacher preparation and attitudes toward inclusion after their participants played the game and compared the result with the control group. This form of research can create artificial situations that do not always represent real-life experiences mainly because variables are overly controlled. The participants who chose SimSchool probably have already had a positive attitude towards computers for training and could work well with them. Furthermore, there is no qualitative information about how the teachers or players felt about the game, what limitations they noticed while playing that and how practical the game would be in real contexts. There is no data about how the game is designed and if the challenges of real trainers are considered in the game design or not. Although the result of this study shows no significant changes, in some areas, there is no effort or intention for further amendments and improvements in the game.

Squire’s Quest researchers used a simple two-group design and measured the difference between treatment and control groups at post-assessment after controlling for pre-assessment values to understand the effectiveness of the game. They reported a result of 1.0 serving difference of fruits, juice and vegetables between treatment and control groups at the end of the program (Baranowski et al., 2003). There is no data about the students and teachers’ impression and the delayed effect of the game. Data is not collected in the process of the game to make changes to the game or remove the limitations for future improvements. There are some interviews with fourth-grade students to assess their interest before writing the storyline of the game but there is no result to show how effective that was and how the players liked them.

PR:EPARe shows a more comprehensive research design. First, they used an intervention mapping approach to find the limitations of sex education. They ran focus groups to collect data and find the limitations and needs of the students and then designed a game with the collaboration of practitioners to address the problem of coercion in relationships. However, to find the effectiveness of their game, they used a small-scale, cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) followed by questionnaires after the intervention to compare any modifications in confidence or knowledge transfer of awareness to sexual coercion between the control and game group. This research claims to provide guidance for adolescents in dealing with coercion and peer pressure, which is a skill in relationships. However, results are based on standardized quantitative questions, which may fail to capture the complexity of how students demonstrate their skills. Although there is no significant change in five categories out of 16 and two categories are in support of control group, they offer no reasons for this lack of change and no suggestions for improving the game. It is not clear whether the reported changes on players is due to the game content, its attraction or other effective impacts on learners.

Future Directions for Serious Gaming Research

In the need for a better approach to education technology, including serious games, I propose design-based research (DBR) for several reasons. In the context of classrooms, conventional methods might produce broad generalizations but not fine-grained information helpful for teachers working in a classroom. They cannot provide in-depth understanding of complex interacting variables with unpredictable effects on how an instructional intervention works or may not work (Reinking & Bradley, 2008). Conventional researchers must consider fidelity and to strengthen the internal validity of their findings they must ensure that their theory is carried out according to exact specifications. This causes the gap between research findings and the demands of authentic practice because those findings are replicable only when the interventions are enacted precisely as implemented in the experiment. But the goal of a design-based researcher is to adapt the intervention to make it work better in response to the challenges within the classroom (Reinking & Bradley, 2008).

Generalization in DBR might be achieved when an educator finds the findings of an intervention useful to his/her practice. (Reinking & Bradley, 2008). Another way to achieve generalization is through replication “to increase reliability by subjecting hypotheses to falsification” (Reinking & Bradley, 2008, p. 41). Firestone (1993) believes analytic generalization is a more appropriate approach of generalization for practice-based studies.

Conceptualizing and conducting design-based research is not mainly based on a specific method of collecting and analyzing data (Bell, 2004). Data collection should be adapted in response to developments during an investigation (Reinking & Bradley, 2008). The data should produce “rich explanatory descriptions that link interdependent variables in an authentic educational context” (Reinking & Bradley, 2008, p. 46). Since qualitative data examines a wider variety of relevant interacting variables, they are considered to be more conceivable in a DBR research (Reinking & Bradley, 2008). Quantitative data can be used in examining the final result and to see if progress has been made (Reinking & Bradley, 2008).

According to Reeves (2006) the procedure of DBR involves four sequential steps (1) the analysis of practical problems using previous literature, shared experience of researchers and practitioner and one or more pilot studies. In my study, it could be lack of well-developed curriculum to educate teenagers about sex (2) the development of solutions based on existing knowledge, which could be a serious game to address the aforementioned problem with explicit goals about the outcome of the game (3) evaluation research of the solutions in practice. The game will be developed and implemented in authentic classroom and the impact of the game on the attitudes and behavior of the players that were involved during the intervention will be measured. Based on the results, game will be refined and will be implemented again. This cycle will happen several times and different methods of data collection might be applied to meet new needs and issues that emerge during the process (Gravemeijer, & Cobb, 2006). (4) Reflection on the total research procedure that can result in both practical solutions and improved theoretical understandings that could be presented to researchers and practitioners. DBR seems to be a proper research design for a sexual health serious game since many factors (e.g. parents’ and students’ attitudes) are involved in the process of developing such game and each cycle of DBR can guide the researcher to develop the game to result in a functional intervention.

Researchers who focus on creating conditions that allow promising interventions to work are consistent with pragmatic view (Reinking & Bradley, 2008). According to Cherryholmes (1992) to pragmatists, theories must do demonstrable work, “It is only acting on our beliefs and observing the consequences that we would know whether our beliefs worked” (p. 15). Through this lens, the goal is to ensure the game serves a practical function within the classroom that move use closer to our goal of addressing sexual education problems in Ontario like lack of trained teachers and efficient curriculum about the pleasant aspects of sex (Basian, 2015).

Conclusion

I have discussed three video games and their theoretical foundations and research designs. I recommend connectivism, as the learning theory and DBR as the research design to overcome challenges in developing a serious game in sexual education. I used the features of an MMORPG, Sims Build it, to illustrate what a hypothetical game could look like. A similar game can provide self-directed context for the players to play, examine, create, collaborate and learn. Having sexual health experts, trained sex educators, parents and student could compensate for the absence of an educator as designer of the course and prevent the game to become confusing. DBR can guide a collaborative design, develop and study of the game in a real context until satisfactory results are achieved.

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